Impact of Graphic Illustrations on English Vocabulary Acquisition in Pakistani Dyslexic Students

Akmal, Saba

doi:10.5281/zenodo.15423059

Research Article (Vol. 2(2)) 2025

Impact of Graphic Illustrations on English Vocabulary Acquisition in Pakistani Dyslexic Students

Saba Akmal

Xpertno International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

41 References Full access

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of graphic illustrations on short- and long-term vocabulary acquisition among Pakistani students with and without dyslexia. The sample consisted of 20 seventh-grade students from a government-sponsored school, including 13 identified as dyslexic and seven as non-dyslexic. A mixed factorial design was employed, incorporating three experimental conditions: text-only, image-only, and a combined text-image format. Challenging vocabulary items, aligned with the Standard English curriculum, were presented using these formats to assess recognition performance. Results indicated that graphic illustrations significantly enhanced vocabulary retention in both groups, with the combined condition yielding the highest improvement. The findings offer important implications for inclusive instructional design and classroom strategies targeting learners with dyslexia. The study concludes that integrating text with image-based metaphors is an effective pedagogical approach for vocabulary development, particularly in students with reading difficulties.

Keywords: graphic illustration; dyslexia; vocabulary acquisition; multimedia learning; mixed factorial design; inclusive education; Pakistan

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Impact of Graphic Illustrations on English Vocabulary Acquisition in Pakistani Dyslexic Students

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Xpertno International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

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15 May 2025

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29 Oct 2026

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29 Oct 2026

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Xpertno International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

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Saba Akmal Corresponding Conceptualization · Formal analysis · Investigation · Methodology · Writing - original draft · Writing - review and editing

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References 41

Afflerback, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.61.5.1
Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Alemdag, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2018). A systematic review of eye tracking research on multimedia learning. Computers & Education, 125, 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.023
Annett, D. (2008). Implementing graphic texts into the language arts classroom. Minnesota English Journal, 44(1), 150–179.
Aleixo, P. A., and K. Sumner. (2017). “Memory for Biopsychology Material Presented in Comic Book Format.” Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics 8 (1): 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/21504857.2016.1219957
Barnard-Brak, L., T. Stevens, and W. Ritter. (2017). “Reading and Mathematics Equally Important to Science Achievement. Results from Nationally-representative Data.” Learning and Individual Differences 58: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.07.001
Carter, S., and R. Pitcher. (2010). “Extended Metaphors for Pedagogy: Using Sameness and Difference.” Teaching in Higher Education 15 (5): 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2010.491904
Christodoulou, J. A., S. N. Del Tufo, J. Lymberis, P. K. Saxler, S. S. Ghosh, C. Triantafyllou, S. Whitfield-Gabrieli, and J. D. E. Gabrieli. (2014). “Brain Bases of Reading Fluency in Typical Reading and Impaired Fluency in Dyslexia.” PLoS One 9 (7): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100552
Chudler, E. H., and P. Konrady. (2006). “Visualizing Neuroscience: Learning about the Brain through Art.” Science Scope 29: 24–27.
Dallacqua, A. K. (2012). “Exploring Literary Devices in Graphic Novels.” Language Arts 89 (6): 365–378.
Davis, C. J., and J. S. Bowers. (2006). “Contrasting Five Different Theories Of Letter Position Coding: Evidence from Orthographic Similarity Effects.” Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 32 (3): 535-557. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.32.3.535
Elbro, C., and M. N. Jensen. (2005). “Quality of Phonological Representations, Verbal Learning, and Phoneme Awareness in Dyslexic and Normal Readers.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 46: 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00468.x
Erdogan, N., B. Navruz, R. Younes, and R. M. Capraro. (2016). “Viewing How STEM Project-based Learning Influences Students’ Science Achievement through the Implementation Lens: A Latent Growth Modeling.” Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education 12 (8): 2139–2154. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1294a
Facoetti, A., M. A. Lorusso, C. Cattaneo, R. Galli, and M. Molteni. (2005). “Visual and Auditory Attentional Capture are Both Sluggish in Children with Developmental Dyslexia.” Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 65 (1): 61–72.
Goodmon, L. B., R. Leverett, A. Royer, G. Hilliard, T. Tedder, and L. Rakes. (2014). “The Effect of Therapy Balls on the Classroom Behavior and Learning of Children with Dyslexia.” Journal of Research in Education 24 (2): 124–145.
Heim, S., J. Pape-Neumann, M. van Ermingen-Marbach, M. Brinkhaus, and M. Grande. (2015).“Shared Vs. Specific Brain Activation Changes in Dyslexia after Training of Phonology, Attention, or Reading.” Brain Structure and Function 220 (4): 2191–2207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-014-0784-y
Hosler, J., and K. B. Boomer. (2011). “Are Comic Books an Effective Way to Engage Nonmajors in Learning and Appreciating Science?” CBE-Life Sciences Education 10 (3): 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10070090
Anjum, M. A. I., & Mansoor, Z. (2020). Teaching English to Pakistani mainstream school dyslexic students through computer-assisted reading materials. Linguistics and Literature Review, 6(1), 09-22.
Karp, J. (2011). “The Power of Words and Pictures: Graphic Novels in Education.” American Libraries 42 (7/8): 33–35.
Lapp, D., T. D. Wolsey, D. Fisher, and N. Frey. (2012). “Graphic Novels: What Elementary Teachers Think about Their Instructional Value.” Journal of Education 192 (1): 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741219200105
Mason, L., M. C. Tornatora, and P. Pluchino. (2013). “Do Fourth Graders Integrate Text and Picture in Processing and Learning from an Illustrated Science Text Evidence from Eye-movement Patterns.” Computers and Education 60 (1): 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.011
Mason, L., P. Pluchino, and M. C. Tornatora. (2013). “Effects of Picture Labeling on Science Text Processing and Learning: Evidence of Eye Movements.” Reading Research Quarterly 48 (2): 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.41
Meier, J. J. (2012). “Science Graphic Novels for Academic Libraries: Collections and Collaborations.” College and Research Libraries News 73 (11): 662–665. https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.73.11.8866
Nash, H., and M. Snowling. (2006). “Teaching New Words to Children with Poor Existing Vocabulary Knowledge: A Controlled Evaluation of the Definition and Context Methods.” International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders 41 (3): 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/13682820600602295
Niebert, K., S. Marsch, and D. F. Treagust. (2012). “Understanding Needs Embodiment: A Theory Guided Reanalysis of the Role of Metaphors and Analogies in Understanding Science.” Science Education 96 (5): 849–877. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21026
Peterson, R. L., B. F. Pennington, and R. K. Olson. (2013). “Subtypes of Developmental Dyslexia:Testing the Predictions of the Dual-route and Connectionist Frameworks.” Cognition 126 (1): 20–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.08.007
Polk County Public School District. (2016). Fifth Grade Science Learning Maps 2016–2017. http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewIdea/Preview/544
Rampey, B. D., Dion, G. S., & Donahue, P. L. (2009). NAEP 2008: Trends in Academic Progress. NCES 2009-479. National Center for Education Statistics.
Sabeti, S. (2012). “Reading Graphic Novels in School: Texts, Contexts and the Interpretive Work of Critical Reading.” Pedagogy, Culture, and Society 20 (2): 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2012.672336
Schneps, M. H., J. K. O’Keefe, A. Heffner-Wong, and G. Sonnert. (2010). “Using Technology to Support STEM Reading.” Journal of Special Education Technology 25 (3): 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264341002500304
Smith, P. L., Goodmon, L. B., Howard, J. R., Hancock, R., Hartzell, K. A., & Hilbert, S. E. (2021). Graphic novelization effects on recognition abilities in students with dyslexia. Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics, 12(2), 127-144.
Smith-Walters, C., K. A. Mangione, and A. S. Bass. (2016). “Science and Language Special Issue: Challenges in Preparing Preservice Teachers for Teaching Science as a Second Language.” Electronic Journal of Science Education 20 (3): 59–71.
Rayner, K., Rotello, C. M., Stewart, A. J., Keir, J., & Duffy, S. A. (2001). Integrating text and pictorial information: Eye movements when looking at print advertisements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(3), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-98X.7.3.219
Schweppe, J., Eitel, A., & Rummer, R. (2015). The multimedia effect and its stability over time. Learning and Instruction, 38, 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.03.001.
Smith, J. M., & Pol, K. (2018). What’s going on in a graphic novel? Reading Teacher, 72(2), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1695
Sung, Y. T., Chen, J. L., Cha, J. H., Tseng, H. C., Chang, T. H., & Chang, K. E. (2015). Constructing and validating readability models: Integrating multilevel linguistic features with machine learning methods. Behavior Research Methods, 47(2), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0459-x
Tafti, M., M. Hameedy, and N. Baghal. (2009). “Dyslexia, a Deficit or a Difference: Comparing the Creativity and Memory Skills of Dyslexic and Non-dyslexic Students in Iran.” Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal 37 (8): 1009–1016. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.8.1009
Tariq, R., & Latif, S. (2016). A mobile application to improve learning performance of dyslexic children with writing difficulties. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(4), 151-166.
Waller, R. 2012. “Graphic Literacies for a Digital Age: The Survival of Layout.” The Information Society 28 (4): 236–252.
Willcutt, E. G., B. F. Pennington, R. K. Olson, N. Chhabildas, and J. Hulslander. (2005). “Neurospsychological Analysis of Comorbidity between Reading Disability and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: In Search of the Common Deficit.” Developmental Neuropsychology 27 (1): 35–78. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2701_3
Ozcelik, E., Karakus, T., Kursun, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2009). An eye-tracking study of how color coding affects multimedia learning. Computers and Education, 53(2), 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.03.002

[1] Afflerback, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.61.5.1

[2] Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

[3] Alemdag, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2018). A systematic review of eye tracking research on multimedia learning. Computers & Education, 125, 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.023

[4] Annett, D. (2008). Implementing graphic texts into the language arts classroom. Minnesota English Journal, 44(1), 150–179.

[5] Aleixo, P. A., and K. Sumner. (2017). “Memory for Biopsychology Material Presented in Comic Book Format.” Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics 8 (1): 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/21504857.2016.1219957

[6] Barnard-Brak, L., T. Stevens, and W. Ritter. (2017). “Reading and Mathematics Equally Important to Science Achievement. Results from Nationally-representative Data.” Learning and Individual Differences 58: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.07.001

[7] Carter, S., and R. Pitcher. (2010). “Extended Metaphors for Pedagogy: Using Sameness and Difference.” Teaching in Higher Education 15 (5): 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2010.491904

[8] Christodoulou, J. A., S. N. Del Tufo, J. Lymberis, P. K. Saxler, S. S. Ghosh, C. Triantafyllou, S. Whitfield-Gabrieli, and J. D. E. Gabrieli. (2014). “Brain Bases of Reading Fluency in Typical Reading and Impaired Fluency in Dyslexia.” PLoS One 9 (7): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100552

[9] Chudler, E. H., and P. Konrady. (2006). “Visualizing Neuroscience: Learning about the Brain through Art.” Science Scope 29: 24–27.

[10] Dallacqua, A. K. (2012). “Exploring Literary Devices in Graphic Novels.” Language Arts 89 (6): 365–378.

[11] Davis, C. J., and J. S. Bowers. (2006). “Contrasting Five Different Theories Of Letter Position Coding: Evidence from Orthographic Similarity Effects.” Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 32 (3): 535-557. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.32.3.535

[12] Elbro, C., and M. N. Jensen. (2005). “Quality of Phonological Representations, Verbal Learning, and Phoneme Awareness in Dyslexic and Normal Readers.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 46: 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00468.x

[13] Erdogan, N., B. Navruz, R. Younes, and R. M. Capraro. (2016). “Viewing How STEM Project-based Learning Influences Students’ Science Achievement through the Implementation Lens: A Latent Growth Modeling.” Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education 12 (8): 2139–2154. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1294a

[14] Facoetti, A., M. A. Lorusso, C. Cattaneo, R. Galli, and M. Molteni. (2005). “Visual and Auditory Attentional Capture are Both Sluggish in Children with Developmental Dyslexia.” Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 65 (1): 61–72.

[15] Goodmon, L. B., R. Leverett, A. Royer, G. Hilliard, T. Tedder, and L. Rakes. (2014). “The Effect of Therapy Balls on the Classroom Behavior and Learning of Children with Dyslexia.” Journal of Research in Education 24 (2): 124–145.

[16] Heim, S., J. Pape-Neumann, M. van Ermingen-Marbach, M. Brinkhaus, and M. Grande. (2015).“Shared Vs. Specific Brain Activation Changes in Dyslexia after Training of Phonology, Attention, or Reading.” Brain Structure and Function 220 (4): 2191–2207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-014-0784-y

[17] Hosler, J., and K. B. Boomer. (2011). “Are Comic Books an Effective Way to Engage Nonmajors in Learning and Appreciating Science?” CBE-Life Sciences Education 10 (3): 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10070090

[18] Anjum, M. A. I., & Mansoor, Z. (2020). Teaching English to Pakistani mainstream school dyslexic students through computer-assisted reading materials. Linguistics and Literature Review, 6(1), 09-22.

[19] Karp, J. (2011). “The Power of Words and Pictures: Graphic Novels in Education.” American Libraries 42 (7/8): 33–35.

[20] Lapp, D., T. D. Wolsey, D. Fisher, and N. Frey. (2012). “Graphic Novels: What Elementary Teachers Think about Their Instructional Value.” Journal of Education 192 (1): 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741219200105

[21] Mason, L., M. C. Tornatora, and P. Pluchino. (2013). “Do Fourth Graders Integrate Text and Picture in Processing and Learning from an Illustrated Science Text Evidence from Eye-movement Patterns.” Computers and Education 60 (1): 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.011

[22] Mason, L., P. Pluchino, and M. C. Tornatora. (2013). “Effects of Picture Labeling on Science Text Processing and Learning: Evidence of Eye Movements.” Reading Research Quarterly 48 (2): 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.41

[23] Meier, J. J. (2012). “Science Graphic Novels for Academic Libraries: Collections and Collaborations.” College and Research Libraries News 73 (11): 662–665. https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.73.11.8866

[24] Nash, H., and M. Snowling. (2006). “Teaching New Words to Children with Poor Existing Vocabulary Knowledge: A Controlled Evaluation of the Definition and Context Methods.” International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders 41 (3): 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/13682820600602295

[25] Niebert, K., S. Marsch, and D. F. Treagust. (2012). “Understanding Needs Embodiment: A Theory Guided Reanalysis of the Role of Metaphors and Analogies in Understanding Science.” Science Education 96 (5): 849–877. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21026

[26] Peterson, R. L., B. F. Pennington, and R. K. Olson. (2013). “Subtypes of Developmental Dyslexia:Testing the Predictions of the Dual-route and Connectionist Frameworks.” Cognition 126 (1): 20–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.08.007

[27] Polk County Public School District. (2016). Fifth Grade Science Learning Maps 2016–2017. http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewIdea/Preview/544

[28] Rampey, B. D., Dion, G. S., & Donahue, P. L. (2009). NAEP 2008: Trends in Academic Progress. NCES 2009-479. National Center for Education Statistics.

[29] Sabeti, S. (2012). “Reading Graphic Novels in School: Texts, Contexts and the Interpretive Work of Critical Reading.” Pedagogy, Culture, and Society 20 (2): 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2012.672336

[30] Schneps, M. H., J. K. O’Keefe, A. Heffner-Wong, and G. Sonnert. (2010). “Using Technology to Support STEM Reading.” Journal of Special Education Technology 25 (3): 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264341002500304

[31] Smith, P. L., Goodmon, L. B., Howard, J. R., Hancock, R., Hartzell, K. A., & Hilbert, S. E. (2021). Graphic novelization effects on recognition abilities in students with dyslexia. Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics, 12(2), 127-144.

[32] Smith-Walters, C., K. A. Mangione, and A. S. Bass. (2016). “Science and Language Special Issue: Challenges in Preparing Preservice Teachers for Teaching Science as a Second Language.” Electronic Journal of Science Education 20 (3): 59–71.

[33] Rayner, K., Rotello, C. M., Stewart, A. J., Keir, J., & Duffy, S. A. (2001). Integrating text and pictorial information: Eye movements when looking at print advertisements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(3), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-98X.7.3.219

[34] Schweppe, J., Eitel, A., & Rummer, R. (2015). The multimedia effect and its stability over time. Learning and Instruction, 38, 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.03.001.

[35] Smith, J. M., & Pol, K. (2018). What’s going on in a graphic novel? Reading Teacher, 72(2), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1695

[36] Sung, Y. T., Chen, J. L., Cha, J. H., Tseng, H. C., Chang, T. H., & Chang, K. E. (2015). Constructing and validating readability models: Integrating multilevel linguistic features with machine learning methods. Behavior Research Methods, 47(2), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0459-x

[37] Tafti, M., M. Hameedy, and N. Baghal. (2009). “Dyslexia, a Deficit or a Difference: Comparing the Creativity and Memory Skills of Dyslexic and Non-dyslexic Students in Iran.” Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal 37 (8): 1009–1016. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.8.1009

[38] Tariq, R., & Latif, S. (2016). A mobile application to improve learning performance of dyslexic children with writing difficulties. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(4), 151-166.

[39] Waller, R. 2012. “Graphic Literacies for a Digital Age: The Survival of Layout.” The Information Society 28 (4): 236–252.

[40] Willcutt, E. G., B. F. Pennington, R. K. Olson, N. Chhabildas, and J. Hulslander. (2005). “Neurospsychological Analysis of Comorbidity between Reading Disability and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: In Search of the Common Deficit.” Developmental Neuropsychology 27 (1): 35–78. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2701_3

[41] Ozcelik, E., Karakus, T., Kursun, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2009). An eye-tracking study of how color coding affects multimedia learning. Computers and Education, 53(2), 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.03.002

Impact of Graphic Illustrations on English Vocabulary Acquisition in Pakistani Dyslexic Students

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References 41